What Is Phylogeny Definition and Examples

Phylogeny is the study of relationships among different groups of organisms and their evolutionary development. Phylogeny attempts to trace the evolutionary history of all life on the planet. It is based on the phylogenetic hypothesis that all living organisms share a common ancestry. The relationships among organisms are depicted in what is known as a phylogenetic tree. Relationships are determined by shared characteristics, as indicated through the comparison of genetic and anatomical similarities. In molecular phylogeny, analysis of DNA and protein structure is used to determine genetic relationships among different organisms. For example, the analysis of cytochrome C, a protein in cell mitochondria that functions in the electron transport system and energy production, is used to determine degrees of relationship among organisms based on similarities of amino acid sequences in cytochrome C. Similarities in characteristics of biochemical structures, such as DNA and proteins, are then used to develop a phylogenetic tree based on inherited shared traits. Key Takeaways: What Is Phylogeny? Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary development of groups of organisms. The relationships are hypothesized based on the idea that all life is derived from a common ancestor.Relationships among organisms are determined by shared characteristics, as indicated through genetic and anatomical comparisons.A phylogeny is represented in a diagram known as a phylogenetic tree. The branches of the tree represent ancestral and/or descendant lineages.Relatedness among taxa in a phylogenic tree is determined by descent from a recent common ancestor.Phylogeny and taxonomy are two systems for classifying organisms in systematic biology. While the goal of phylogeny is to reconstruct the evolutionary tree of life, taxonomy uses a hierarchical format to classify, name, and identify organisms. Phylogenetic Tree A phylogenetic tree, or cladogram, is a schematic diagram used as a visual illustration of proposed evolutionary relationships among taxa. Phylogenetic trees are diagrammed based on assumptions of cladistics, or phylogenetic systematics. Cladistics is a classification system that categorizes organisms based on shared traits, or synapomorphies, as determined by genetic, anatomical, and molecular analysis. The main assumptions of cladistics are: All organisms descend from a common ancestor.New organisms develop when existing populations split into two groups.Over time, lineages experience changes in characteristics. This phylogenic tree show phylogeny based on differences in the protein sequence of cytochrome c in organisms ranging from Neurospora mold to humans. Encyclopaedia Britannica/UIG/Getty Image   Phylogenetic tree structure is determined by shared traits among different organisms. Its tree-like branching represents diverging taxa from a common ancestor. Terms that are important to understand when interpreting a phylogenetic tree diagram include: Nodes: These are points on a phylogenetic tree where branching occurs. A node represents the end of the ancestral taxon and the point where a new species splits from its predecessor.Branches: These are the lines on a phylogenetic tree that represent ancestral and/or descendant lineages. Branches arising from nodes represent descendant species that split from a common ancestor.Monophyletic Group (Clade): This group is a single branch on a phylogenetic tree that represents a group of organisms that are descended from a most recent common ancestor.Taxon (pl.Taxa): Taxa are specific groupings or categories of living organisms. The tips of branches in a phylogenetic tree end in a taxon. Taxa that share a more recent common ancestor are more closely related than taxa with a less recent common ancestor. For example, in the image above, horses are more closely related to donkeys than to pigs. This is because horses and donkeys share a more recent common ancestor. Additionally, it can be determined that horses and donkeys are more closely related because they belong to a monophyletic group that does not include pigs. Avoiding Misinterpretations of Taxa Relatedness This phylogenic tree show phylogeny based on differences in the protein sequence of cytochrome c in organisms.   Encyclopaedia Britannica/UIG/Getty Image Relatedness in a phylogenetic tree is determined by descent from a recent common ancestor. When interpreting a phylogenetic tree, there is a tendency to presume that distance between taxa can be used to determine relatedness. However, branch tip proximity is positioned arbitrarily and can not be used to determine relatedness. For example, in the above image, the branch tips including penguins and turtles are positioned closely together. This may be incorrectly interpreted as close relatedness between the two taxa. By looking at the most recent common ancestors, it can be correctly determined that the two taxa are distantly related. Another way that phylogenetic trees can be misinterpreted is by counting the number of nodes between taxa to determine relatedness. In the phylogenetic tree above, pigs and rabbits are separated by three nodes, while dogs and rabbits are separated by two nodes. It could be misinterpreted that dogs are more closely related to rabbits because the two taxa are separated by fewer nodes. Taking into consideration the most recent common ancestry, it can be correctly determined that dogs and pigs are equally related to rabbits. Phylogeny vs. Taxonomy This image shows the hierarchical taxonimic categorization of a dog. CNX OpenStax/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY 4.0   Phylogeny and taxonomy are two systems for classifying organisms. They represent the two main fields of systematic biology. Both of these systems rely on characteristics or traits for classifying organisms into different groups. In phylogenetics, the goal is to trace the evolutionary history of species by attempting to reconstruct the phylogeny of life or the evolutionary tree of life. Taxonomy is a hierarchical system for naming, classifying, and identifying organisms. Phylogenic characteristics are used to help establish taxanomic groupings. The taxonomic organization of life classifies organisms into three domains:   Archaea: This domain includes prokaryotic organisms (those that lack a nucleus) that differ from bacteria in membrane composition and RNA.Bacteria: This domain includes prokaryotic organisms with unique cell wall compositions and RNA types.Eukarya: This domain includes eukaryotes, or organisms with a true nucleus. Eukaryotic organisms include plants, animals, protists, and fungi. Organisms in the domain Eukarya are further categorized into smaller groupings: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. These groupings are also divided into intermediate categories such as subphyla, suborders, superfamilies, and superclasses.   Taxonomy is not only useful for categorizing organisms but also establishes a specific naming system for organisms. Known as binomial nomenclature, this system provides a unique name for an organism consisting of a genus name and species name. This universal naming system is recognized worldwide and avoids confusion over the naming of organisms. Sources Dees, Jonathan et al. Student interpretations of phylogenetic trees in an introductory biology course CBE life sciences education vol. 13,4 (2014): 666-76.  Journey Into Phylogenetic Systematics. UCMP, www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html.

Ethical Dilemmas Right And Wrong - 1983 Words

Ethical Dilemmas Right and Wrong It’s quite often that I cross a dilemma. Most of the times it’s something so simple as, how am I going to get my two kids to practice at the same time, in different places. It’s not often that I come across an ethical dilemma. â€Å"Ethics involves making moral judgements about what is right or wrong, good or bad† (Banks,2). Banks says that â€Å"an ethical dilemma arises only when a decision must be made that involves a conflict at the personal, interpersonal, institutional, or societal level or raises issues of rights or moral character (Banks,12).† This statement all boils down to what the decision is. Everyday we have to make decisions that involve other people, and as for me, I am always mentally aware, and prepared to abide by the good, and correct or right way. As life has it though, we are not always able to provide the right answers, and sometimes find ourselves in situations that don’t line up with our morals. Itâ₠¬â„¢s all about how we handle those times. I also feel that sometimes bad things have to happen to get good things to happen. It’s such of that as if someone goes to jail for beating up a man that was beating a woman. Yes, it’s wrong to beat the living crap out of someone, but if you saved that woman for even just a few minutes it might be worth it to you. I think this is why I enjoyed the books. It shows that sometimes things have to be handled or are handled in what society deems wrong or not moral. For me these books showed whatShow MoreRelatedMoral Dilemmas673 Words   |  3 PagesMoral Dilemmas Moral Dilemmas Introduction Moral dilemmas are situations, which cause conflicts, and the decision made, can breach one or another principle or claim. The action taken by the subject can be something wrong or something undermining another option. Dilemmas cause conflicts where the subject has to settle on the appropriate action to be followed for certain options available; hence unable to decide the course of action to pursue. They are moral dilemmas because they conflict withRead MoreBook Review: How Godd People Make Tough Choices Essay1043 Words   |  5 PagesTOUGH CHOICES This book is aimed at helping people make ethical choices, through a readable mixture of analysis, guidance, and case studies. It was easy for me to identify with the case studies. The basic premise is that tough choices revolve not around questions of right vs. wrong rather tough choices revolve around questions of right vs. right. Based on study of thousands of real ethical dilemmas, Kidder presents four ethical paradigm pairs: Truth vs. loyalty Individual vs. community Read MoreMoral Dilemmas At The Yorktown Gym1245 Words   |  5 PagesMoral Dilemmas In the Workplace: Yorktown Gym Ethical dilemmas can arise in any situation and they can happen in a group setting or an individual setting. Workplace dilemmas can occur at any time and can appear as minor situations, or they can be a more serious situation. In individual settings, ethical dilemmas may seem more prominent and harder to determine what the right action to take would actually be, because no one else is present to say whether something is right or wrong. This is the situationRead MoreCritical Analysis of Ethical Relativism Essay1069 Words   |  5 PagesWhen it comes to moral dilemmas between cultures, there is a grey area that can sometimes make it difficult to resolve issues surrounding the dilemma. What is morality? 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Me and College free essay sample

â€Å"Hello† (Insert smile here). â€Å"How are you doing today College?† (Insert outreached hand for a handshake here). â€Å"Oh, you need to know my full name for your records? No problem. My first name is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. My middle name is Generalized Anxiety Disorder. And my last name is Major Depressive Disorder. Nice to meet you.† When I sign my names on documents I write â€Å"Julie Driscoll†, but if names defined us, the above would be my name. From one snowy winter in February of 2003 to this very day in January 2009 I have been climbing an uphill battle with mental disorders. I have obsessed about the most disturbing and petrifying thoughts one could imagine. I have worried about everything from my day in school to the chances of me developing schizophrenia. And I have spent weeks upon weeks lying in bed telling myself there is no point in getting up. While most kids dread going to class because of the teacher, workload, etc, I worried I would faint, â€Å"go insane†, and throw up. We will write a custom essay sample on Me and College or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I spent countless class periods curled up in a ball in the nurse’s office hiding from the world. While most kids stayed after school to play basketball or practice for the drama club, I went home to sleep away the pain. While kids worried about the next school dance, I worried I would fall asleep and never wake up again. I have spent more hours in psychiatrist’s and psychologist’s offices then I have living life. I have been hospitalized twice because (in my own words at the moment) â€Å"I just can’t handle this anymore.† Perhaps hell isn’t an appropriate word for a college admissions essay, but to make my point clear, you could compare the way I have felt to hell. Now, that was the suffering part. Next is the healing part. I’m not going to pretend no one has ever held my hand through all of this, reassured me that I would one day feel okay or just sat with me and really listened. People helped. But let me tell you how they helped. They helped with the door shut. They helped with lowered voices. And they helped behind the public, secluded in their own world. In my high school, there was never a time where I felt I wasn’t getting the attention I needed to feel safe. But still, everything about me was treated like a secret. I’ve been given the impression from this world early on that people don’t talk about mental disorders. More than half of people on this earth will experience either anxiety or depression in their lifetime. But we can’t talk about it openly yet? I am so frustrated with this world we live in where it is shameful to have a chemical imbalance. Spending so much of my high school years in the nurse’s office has given me the chance to witness all kinds of illnesses. For example, there were a few students who would regularly come in to check their levels for diabetes. Everyone was there to watch them take care of themselves. But yet when someone came into the office with tears or shaking with fear, everyone else was shooed out. Each morning in my school we have announcements where there are lists of students read off such as â€Å"so and so to guidance,† and â€Å"so and so to the nurse.† When it comes time to call down kids to see the school psychologist, it is simply â€Å"so and so to the office.† During my second hospital stay, I asked some teenagers if their friends knew where they were. Time after time the answer was â€Å"Of course not!† Pity my frustrations? Please don’t. Accept me to your college and let me change the world by first changing myself. After six years of suffering I am ready to actively engage in psychology courses and figure out for myself how to make me and the rest of the world feel understood. I think College can help me achieve my goals by changing the way people look at me, my mental disorders, and the rest of the mentally ill in this world. I want the stigma on mental illness to be significantly erased in my lifetime. I think I have a big enough eraser in my tool box to make this happen. Please allow me the opportunity to let me bring my eraser to your campus. Thank you for your time.

Strategic Information Systems of an Organization Free-Sample

Questions: Write the Literature Review would be on an Organisation that is using Accounting Software Packages in Australia. Answer: Organization Structure The current organization structure of the company is shown below. Operational problems The principle of accounting independence has not been followed when designing the structure of the organization. Due to this, the functional team handling a particular physical activity is also taking care of the accounting aspect of that activity. This can lead to unreliable information. Due to unreliable information, the organization may take faulty decisions. Inefficiency may also be experienced since the team will be forced to perform all the tasks of the physical activity together with accounting (Schaffer, 2008). System acquisition method The organization has very unique information needs that can be satisfied with the use of a commercial software that is already finished and completely tested for implementation. Generally, commercial application are usually customized to suit specific industries (Bragg, 2002). System flow chart The sales process flow chart is an important instrument for business. It gives the company an opportunity to imagine and understand the sales procedures, disclose and also visually highlight issues or holdups, and forecast on sales. Flowchart Control problems Though there exists security risks and challenges which are related to cloud computing systems. Approaches to deal with the security threats that face cloud computing systems include information-centric security, predicate cryptography, and authentication measures (Joshi, 2013). Literature Review An accounting software/package is a system that is used on a computer and it perfoms all accounting tasks, such as recording, storing, sorting, retrieving, analyzing, presenting and conveying accounting information to different shareholder groups (Spathis, 2006). Applications enhance the quality of accounting data and promotes moving efficiency between organizations sectors and among organizations branches and their numerous users or investor groups. All the necessary information to the organization of any company requires the valuation of numerous cost objects to do a proper evaluation; correct data is required regarding all resources that are consumed directly or indirectly (Drury, 2008). The introduction to using accounting software is precious to organizations. However, the software applications should have a general guideline on what application standards the software need to have. There are four general features that accounting packages must have (Rushinek and Rushinek, 1995). They include; ease of installation, ease of use, should have seller support and the capability to be updated. Training should also be done on how to use the applications so that the future needs of the organization or business can be met. This can only be achieved through training. An appropriate accounting application should have a compatibility feature. A compatibility feature is smooth functional system constant with operations, workforce and administrative structure (Byrd Turners, 2000) Flexibility is of great importance in accounting applications. Flexibility can be defined as an n application capacity alongside a variation of course or a deviation from the programmed path of activity (Genus Dickson, 1995). History, development, and adoption The commonly used accounting system also known as general ledger is a book with distributed pages for every account i.e. payables, receivable, cash, equity. Each day transactions are entered by use of hand into the journal. Intuit came up with a computerized application named Quicken. The company later introduced Quickbooks for small business accounting in 1983. Turbo Tax, an application for calculating income taxes and federal, were presented to Nivinson. That saw the end of using manual entries and computers was embraced because it made the work of accountants much easier. They gave accountants an opportunity to be more productive (Hodge, 2008). In the recent past, there has been a significant improvement in the innovation in technology and organizations now depend on machines to help in the running of businesses. Since the formation of Intuit in the year 1983, It has played a significant role in developing applications for the current age. Intuit products are vast, but QuickBooks is the most commonly used. The current market size Australia has two accounting software companies competing for the market share; Xero which is from Zealand and QuickBooks Online (QBO) from is US-based Intuit. They are not the only companies in the market but because of the recent developments, they are outshining the others throughout other continents (Leung, 2011) Quickbooks has been on the market for quite some time, but its entry to Australia is relatively recent. Whereas Xero has been in the Australian market for a couple of years and has seen its widespread use by accountants and small businesses due to its capability to communicate with customers. Despite Xero being wide known in Australia, Quickbooks has launched a new user interface for Quickbooks Online (Harmony), customized with Australian localizations to the product, employed staff and opened an office in Australia and is trying to capture the Australian market share. Leaders in the market and what gives them the competitive advantage. Intuit QuickBooks MYOB Reckon Saasu Xero Intuit QuickBooks - A highly ranked accounting software in Australia. QB is among the most widespread accounting application used by small businesses in Australia. The factors that contribute to this include:- Price which is $12/month and $21/month for the premier version. QuickBooks provides a wide-ranging level of features that businesses in Australia use to trail business revenue, expenditures, and earnings. MYOB: - Australias best accounting software. It targets to be more than a functional accounting application. It has an additional feature that helps owners of businesses to increase productivity and make enhanced choices with a simultaneous view of a companys fiscal operations. It integrates the point of sale transactions into the entire business operations. It has an interface known as Kounta which works both online and offline, and the clientele hardly notices if the Internet connection slows down. They have a compliant capability known as ATO which is a huge attraction. Reckon: Purposes to be the best accounting application for accountants, bookkeepers, and companies in Australia. Its one of the affordable cloud accounting software for small businesses in Australias and is well recognized. It uses a platforms known as Reckon Pay. This platform accepts debit/credit card payments using cell phones. Saasu: - It claims to be the future of accounting. By using the application, business people in Australia can immediately execute cash flow cashing with just a click without additional setups. It offers smart bank payments that efficiently execute bank settlements thus, helps on saving time. It manages transactions in different foreign currencies. Its considered the best accounting applications for businesses in Australia. It has all that is needed to run a business from anyplace, by use of any podium. Xero: - Xero is a highly popular online accounting software in Australia. It offers real-time data monitoring abilities. It has over half a million subscribers who use the application. It has a wide range of business accounting functionalities since it offers speedy internet billing. It has a cutting-edge reconciliation process that allows the user to import and group bank transactions. Xero has two subscription categories. Starter software subscription $9/month Premium accounting software $70/month Current gaps or challenges encountered by users or customers of accounting Leading accounting software packages are cloud based, or they intend to do so. Security of any data is essential to any business. Online content is prone to hacker attacks, fraud, and other threats. It needs a high level of security which might be very expensive. Software/Packages A software/package is an of application that records and processes accounting transactions by use of well-designed components i.e. accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll, and trial balance. There are different types of accounting application in the market which depend on business requirements. Small business/individual accounting applications are mostly intended for home users. The applications are straightforward and low-priced through the simple functionality e.g. managing one's budget (Godfrey Chalmers 2007). Low-budget accounting applications are meant for small business markets that are capable of serving a single market. These applications are characterized by single entry products. Mid-market accounting applications is meant for establishments with large businesses. These applications serve the requirements of multiple nationwide accountancy principles due the the multi-currency facility. Relevant suggestions or recommendations Accounting users have demands for enhancing the quality of software. They software is expected to have general application features i.e. ease of installation, ease of use, should have seller support and the capability to be updated. Accountants and bookkeepers to undergo training on how to use the applications so that the future needs of the organization or business can be met, this can only be accomplished through training. An appropriate accounting application should have a compatibility feature. A compatibility feature is smooth functional system constant with operations, workforce and organizational structure. Flexibility is of a key important factor in accounting applications. Flexibility can be defined as the systems capacity alongside a change of course or deviation from the programmed direction of course. Conclusion: An accounting software that is per the standards discussed above should easen an accountant work since computers are being used instead of the manual book keeping methods. Research indicates that the use of accounting applications minimizes the amount of time accounting professionals spend while undertaking accounting tasks to minimal. Reference: Bragg, S. M. (2002). Accounting reference desktop. New York: John Wiley Sons. Byrd, T. A., Turner, D. E. (2000). Measuring the flexibility of information technology infrastructure: Exploratory analysis of a construct. Journal of Management Information Systems, 17(1), 167-208. Frishammar, J. (2002). Characteristics in information processing approaches. International Journal of Information Management, 22(2), 143-156. Genus, A. and K. Dickson, (1995), Technological Analysis and Strategic Management 7(3), 283 285. Godfrey, J. M., Chalmers, K. (2007). Globalisation of accounting standards. Cheltenham, UK:Edward Elgar. Hodge, B. (2008). Accounting. London: Thomson Learning. Joshi, G. (2013). Management information systems. Leung, D. (2011). Inside Accounting: The Sociology of Financial Reporting and Auditing. Farnham, Surrey, England: Gower. Ramazani, M., Zanjani, M., Vali, F. (2012). Accounting Software Expectation Gap Based on Features of Accounting Information Systems (AISs). Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences, 3(11). Rushinek, A., Rushinek, S. F. (1995). Accounting software evaluation: hardware, audit trails, backup, error recovery and security. Managerial Auditing Journal, 10(9), 29-37. Scha?ffer, U. (2008). Management accounting control scales handbook. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universita?ts-Verlag. Spathis, C. (2006). Enterprise systems implementation and accounting benefits. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 19, 67-82. Tabachnick, B. Fidell, L. (2007). Using multivariate statistics, Boston, Allyn Bacon.

Fetal Alcojhol Syndrome Essays - RTT, Teratogens, Alcohol And Health

Fetal Alcojhol Syndrome Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) refers to a group of physical and mental birth defects resulting from a women's drinking alcohol heavily or at crucial stages during pregnancy. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome was first named and treated in the late 1960's. This condition results from the toxic effect of alcohol and its chemical factors on the developing fetus. FAS is the leading cause of mental retardation occurring in 1 out of every 750 births. The frequency of FAS occurs about 1.9 times out of every 1000 births according to the latest figures, and minor effects can be seen in up to 20% of pregnancies per year. This number changes drastically for women who are clearly alcoholics. As high as 29 children out of every 1000 births will suffer from FAS if the mother is an alcoholic. The overwhelming consistency of this disease is that it is 100% preventable if a mother would drink no alcohol while pregnant. There are three major effects or hallmarks of drinking while pregnant. First, alcohol will cause pre- and postnatal growth retardation for the baby. Second, alcohol can cause central nervous system dysfunction and neurodevelopmental defects for the child. The third consequence of drinking while pregnant causes facial disformaties. Studies comparing children of women who drank continually throughout their pregnancy with women who abstained from drinking that alcohol exposed offspring were smaller in weight, length, and head circumference. The greatest effect of FAS appears to be the overall size of an alcohol-exposed child. Children exposed prenatally to alcohol continue to be smaller than their non-exposed peers. A study has shown that there is a relationship between alcohol exposure during the second and third trimesters and growth at 8 months, 18 months, and 3years of age. Children exposed to an average of one drink per day or more during the second or third trimester were signific antly smaller in weight, length, and head circumference when compared with children who had not been exposed to alcohol. Children that were exposed to less than one drink a day were smaller than the non-exposed children but larger than the more heavily exposed children. The attempt to understand FAS has lead to new areas of research attempting to discover the mechanism that causes defects. As of now the exact mechanism is not known. One theory suggest that alcohol increases placental contractility and thereby decreases oxygen supply to the growing embryo. A lack of necessary oxygen to a growing brain is no doubt the result of alcohol's work but exactly how it happens is still under investigation. In the United States, epidemiological data suggest that the rates of FAS tend to higher in African American and Native Americans than whites of similar socioeconomic status. A survey complied by the centers for disease control and prevention reviewed more than 4.6 million births in approximately 1,200 hospitals and showed considerable differences in occurrence of FAS among racial groups. The reason for variance among these groups remains unclear. Among Native Americans, rates of FAS even varied between the different tribes. This may be attributed to nutrition, fertility, or metabolic differences in the genetic makeup of each tribe. Also Native American family culture can influence drinking patterns often leading to a higher rate of alcohol consumption. Among factors to consider, alcohol consumption is frequently associated with drug abuse, smoking, and malnutrition. All of these factors can cause serious harm to the developing embryo of a child. It is difficult for researchers to decide which effects are caused by alcohol alone. To clearly distinguish a child as having FAS poses a difficult thing for researchers. They soon began to realize that they were encountering children with some, but not all the classical signs of FAS. Because a diagnosis of FAS demands the presence of all three hallmarks, (growth deficiency, central nervous system dysfunction, and physical abnormalities) a term was developed to refer to children with what seemed to suspected fetal alcohol exposure. The name to these occurrences is Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE). This is not intended to be a diagnosis but rather a bookmark suggesting that the abnormalities seen in children were comparable with FAS. To date, there is no universal accepted evidence that FAE is definable

The byzantine in 1000 AD essays

The byzantine in 1000 AD essays For many years a taboo subject for all but a small number of specialists primarily in the fields of history and political science, and treated as an aberration in discussions of 'Western Culture', fascism has returned with a vengeance. The resurgence of extreme right wing and neo-fascist movements in Europe and throughout the world in the last fifteen years have, of course, played a major and indeed chilling role in this 'return'. So too, have revelations concerning fascist involvements on the part of major intellectual figures and artists whose work has had a profound inßuence in shaping modern and postmodern culture. Fascism, in short, can no longer be considered a short-lived aberration but must be dealt with as an ongoing presence in our cultural and political heritage. Richard GolsanÕs talk will pursue these observations and attempt to assess why fascism remains a scandal, which we are still not able to cope with culturally or politically. The Spectacular State: Fascism and the Modern Imagination is a public forum happening in which brings together artists, activists, and scholars to generate critical discussion about the various characteristics and consequences of fascism in its historical and contemporary contexts. The forum will include film and video screenings, art exhibitions, lectures, panels and roundtable discussions at a number of different venues. There are many reasons why a public forum dedicated to the critical examination of fascism is especially urgent. The most immediate and obvious is the resurgence of neo-nazism and the extreme right, and the subsequent need to understand how these movements operate so that they can be more effectively resisted. Nineteen ninety-five marks the 50th anniversary of the end of the European Holocaust and the beginning of international recognition of its crimes and atrocities. Although this part of hist ...

Violence Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Violence - Research Paper Example Regardless of what argument a person takes, â€Å"Call of Duty† should be an adult game that is only played by people over the age of 18 or young people who have reached the moral stage of development that understands right from wrong. A 1994 survey of young students, between fourth and sixth grades, showed that the longer a person plays a video game the more their personal empathy for others was reduced (Funk, Baldacci, Pasold & Baumgardner, 26). Empathy is the level of personal respect and emotional attachment that a person has to the needs of others in society. This study suggests that if a child were to play â€Å"Call of Duty† for a long period of time, and be exposed to ongoing brutal images, they will be likely to adopt personality traits that make them less caring about others. This theory offers that young people will become desensitized after prolonged periods, making them less teamwork focused and able to support others in the community with positive emotions. In my personal life, I have watched many young children playing violent video games, including â€Å"Call of Duty†. Some of these children were between the ages of eight and 17 years. I have seen children who get very involved with the content of the game, and will explode verbally when they fail to meet content targets or achieve the game’s goal. One young child, a family friend of age 12, actually would slam the computer mouse down on the counter and swear at the computer when playing the game. This was something that was not common with this child when in other social environments. This would add support to the idea that it can change the personality behaviors of children when they play the game over and over again. A normally content and non-explosive child who, when exposed to violent game play, begins to act uncontrollably and angry should be an

Visual Effects Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Visual Effects - Assignment Example The principles of the visualization illustrate content focus. The visualization concentrates on illustrating how HAI is contracted. Data visualization 02 is studied through the common dash board mistakes of Stephen Few. The data arrangement is poor (Edward 93). This is because four bar graphs and one pie chart are squeezed in one slide page. This minimizes visual clarity. There is also poorly highlighting of the most important information. This is because a lot of information is illustrated in a single page, leading to confusion. Data visualization 03 is analyzed through the excel dashboards. Excel enables effective illustrating of statistical data through graphs, tables and charts (Edward 36). The top hashtags and top mentions are summarized accordingly through the bar graphs. However, illustrating a lot of visual information in one page is not desirable, as it may confuse the audience. The dog images are illustrated through the analytical designs principles. The two dog images illustrate a dog in a jumping motion. The first image illustrates the dog jumping into a water body. The second image shows the impact that the do has on the water surface due to the jumping

Cultural diversity in America Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Cultural diversity in America - Essay Example Culture influences basically in the way of behavior, way of living, and way of speech. It is a habit formation that takes place when one grows in a particular society and the innate quality to learn from his surrounding in order to cope up with his environment is the unique part of character inherent in human being which develops while growing in the community. Culture has substantial influence in groups and individual each human is the product of the culture where he lives that even has an unconscious influence on each human it has become human identification. Most of the society has their own culture and are proud of its culture, and when two or more cultures come in contact together there arises a diversity in that culture. United State is highly enriched with cultural diversities as people from all over the world settled here leading to cultural differences. Most of Americans face cultural differences in their life. Globalization brought the world together and with the development of global economic system and the rise of international cooperation and business community has helped to bring people from all over the world with different cultures into face-to-face contact. It has been a providing shelter for every one, hence people from all over the world are migrating to America, and America is a nation with diverse cultures and has always taken pride in their diversity. Culture has always attracted anthropologists, educators, historians, and sociologists to explore various aspects of culture and its implications in their field. The dive rsity of culture also brought conflicts between various cultural groups and caused various social problems. Cultural diversity in America has been a matter of debate and people from different cultures face problems in schools, colleges, universities, institutions, government and business circle What constitutes race and ethnic character of human is the out ward physical and

Disadvantages Of Arv Treatment Health And Social Care Essay

Disadvantages Of Arv Treatment Health And Social Care Essay Herbs have been used extensively in hopes of improving immune response and reducing symptoms. No known herbal remedy has been shown to cure AIDS or even reduce chances of AIDS-related infections. Still, some herbs can be worth trying if used safely and in consultation with a qualified practitioner who not only understands herbs but also has experience treating AIDS and HIV infection. Immunity-boosting herbs (such as Astragalus, Echinacea, and Ginkgo) may help revive an ailing immune system, and certain herbs (such as Garlic) may help battle bacteria and viruses. Deglycyrrhizinated licorice can soothe the mouth and throat ulcers that often accompany full-blown AIDS. Unfortunately, there is no known scientific explanation yet, for how herbs have these powers in treating AIDS and the only information available about how useful herbal treatments and remedies can be, is based on the knowledge gained from people living with HIV/AIDS. This means that not all herbs and remedies have the same effect on all people. Some communities have their own knowledge of health and nutrition, based on local traditions and culture. This may complicate the administration of herbal remedies from region to region, as the fundamental factor is now depending whether the patient is willing to cross cultures in order to obtain treatment. In some extreme cases, any external medical recommendations that a patient may receive is compared with their cultural practices and the recommendations of their traditional healers. Patients will only take action if the recommendations they receive appear to make sense and provide some benefit. Ironically, some traditional beliefs and food practices may not be useful at all, judging that a herb like Garlic root should work whether the patient is of Chinese or African descent. Patients with HIV/AIDS often become frustrated with management of the disease and are willing to try anything in the hope of staying healthy and living longer. One of the greatest disadvantages is that HIV/AIDS is not a traditional illness and so far, there is no hard evidence to believe that traditional medicines or herbal remedies can treat HIV and cure AIDS. However, certain herbal medicines may help to treat many of the symptoms of opportunistic infections that are part of AIDS. While some of these medicines may be undoubtedly helpful, others may be dangerous as they may do more harm than good. This happens when the patient mixes pharmaceutical drugs and herbs resulting in contra-indications or when they take certain foods that should be otherwise avoided. The notion that herbal medicines are natural and therefore safe is as widespread as it is misleading. Some of these remedies have been associated with severe adverse effects caused by the toxicity of the herbal ingredients. Others may cause problems because of contamination or adulteration [9]. Herbs and spices should be used in moderate amounts. Exceeding these amounts may cause problems and have a toxic effect; moreover, the function of the herbs and spices will not be increased. Herbs do not replace healthy eating and should not be used in place of a healthy and balanced diet but they do retain the bodys natural pH (alkaline) and this in turn, as discussed before, forces the microzymes to stop mutating into bacteria, viruses and funguses that cause opportunistic infections. 2.1.7 Advantages of Herbal Treatment: On general note, Herbal therapies seek to boost patients immune systems, inhibit opportunistic infections, alleviate symptoms, and inhibit HIV itself. Herbal medicines are very cheap in comparison to the conventional form of medication Herbal medicine helps the body to maintain its natural pH, which is alkaline; this in turn starves and inhibits all adverse microzymes from growing or mutating. Herbal medicines can be consumed without the aid of any kind of prescription, although a herbal or medical practitioner has to be consulted prior Herbal medicines are known to be more productive in comparison to other forms of medication in curing certain conditions. Herbal medicines offer long lasting benefits in terms of overall wellness. In certain situations, Herbs are considered a possible means to minimize drug side effects. Unlike with the convectional highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), herbs do not need to work in combination in order to get effective results Herbs are readily available and once a patient knows which herb to use, he/she can grow their own. 2.1.8 Disadvantages of Herbal Treatment: Curing period is usually longer in comparison to conventional medication Drug-interactions can be hazardous to a patient ,if they decide to mix herbs and drugs Herbal medicines are known to be ineffective against serious ailments Herbal medicines are taken without prescription which means that in some cases, individual might be undergoing a trial and error process with their medication. Herbal medicines can cause allergic reactions in some cases Herbal medicines will not eliminate the HI virus out of the body Most governments do not approve of any kind of herbal medication. Its usually consumed upon the persons own risk, and when it comes to branded herbal supplements one cant expect any kind of quality assurance 2.2 Expert Systems and their use on the Internet 2.2.0 Expert systems An expert system is a computer program that incorporates concepts derived from experts in a field, uses the available information, heuristics and inference to suggest solutions to problems in that particular discipline or give advice. An expert system should have good decision making, this is strongly dependent on various capabilities that include the effective acquisition, storage, distribution and sophisticated use of the human experts in the field in question. The most widely used way of representing domain knowledge in expert systems is as a set of production rules which is also how humans generally infer decisions. Expert systems were made to provide knowledge and advice to a larger number of users than one user. An Expert system can be viewed as a teaching tool because it is equipped with the unique features which allow the users to ask questions on how, why and what format, expert systems also allow automation of many tasks that could not be effectively handled by human experts. In addition, an Expert system attempts to emulate how a human expert solves a problem, mostly by the manipulation of symbols instead of numbers. As a result because of the low cost per user and automation of numerous tasks ,expert system making has become very attractive and in the long run is much cheaper than getting human expert advice, its development is however relatively costly but its operation is easy and quite cheap. Maintenance is easy as well because once an expert system is developed it is simple to add new information to the knowledge base and new rules can be developed. 2.2.1 Advantages of Expert systems Availability: The expert system is always available 24 hours a day and will on no account tire Can capture scarce expertise, collected from a number of experts and integrate their opinions. Consistency: The computer does not make common futile human mistakes such as forgetting, getting drunk or strike when it is most needed. Data can be kept up-to-date. Efficiency: Expert systems have an increased output and productivity as well as decreased decision making time. Flexibility: Expert systems can operate in hazardous environments. They can also work with incomplete or uncertain information. Scalability: The system can be used at a distance over a network therefore can reach a large population. The computer can store far more information than a human expert. 2.2.2 Disadvantages of Expert systems Expertise can be hard to extract from humans Expert system users have natural cognitive limits (therefore can not perform as perfectly as a human) Experts vocabulary is often limited and highly technical Expert systems may not be able to arrive at valid conclusions and sometimes produce incorrect recommendations Knowledge is not always readily available Lack of trust by end-users Most experts have no independent means to validate their conclusions 2.3 Structure of Expert systems A typical expert system consists of: A knowledge base; this contains the specific domain knowledge that is used by an expert to derive conclusions from facts The inference engine, which is responsible for using the rules and facts to derive conclusions whether it is through forward, backward chaining or a combination of both. An explanation system, which provides information to the user about how the inference engine arrived at its conclusions A fact database, which contains the case-specific data that are to be used in a particular case to derive a conclusion and A User interface, which provides access to the inference engine, the explanation system, and the knowledge-base editor. KnowledgeBase Fact Database Expert System Shell Inference Engine Knowledge Base Editor Explanation System User Interface User Figure2.1 A basic structure of an Expert System. An Expert System can be rule-based, frame based or both. In a rule-based system, the knowledge base is a database of rules. Rule-based systems are computer systems that use rules to provide recommendations or diagnoses, or to determine a course of action in a particular situation or to solve a particular problem. Its line of reasoning or the inference engine technique can be forward chaining, backward chaining, or a combination of both and the Rete algorithm. 2.4 Inference Engine The knowledge in the knowledge base is used for reasoning and inferring conclusions. An inference rule is an abstract structure that contains a set of rules that mathematically delineates a (usually infinite) set of finite length strings over a (usually finite) alphabet. It is a two part structure using First Order Logic for knowledge representation. If then The brain of expert system is the inference engine which is generally a large number of rules and facts. The inference engine matches facts and data, which is in the fact database against the inference rules to infer conclusions which result in actions. The process of matching the new or existing facts against inference rules is called Pattern matching. Pattern matching in the inference engine can use any of the following algorithms: Linear Rete Treat Leaps Most of the rule engines under study implement and extend the Rete algorithm. Leaps is also used widely but is questionable due to poor maintenance. Rete based engines have proprietary enhancements to the Rete algorithm like RetePlus, Rete III and ReteOO. The Rete algorithm is responsible for ensuring that there is a clear distinction between rules and facts in the database. This algorithm takes the form of a network, with nodes and paths. Each path from the root node to a leaf in the tree represents the left-hand side of a rule. Each node stores details of which facts have been matched by the rules at that point in the path. In situations where new data or facts are added, it means the Rete algorithm will propagate and change data stored at the node accordingly. In this way, the system only needs to test each new fact against the rules, and only against those rules to which the new fact is relevant, instead of checking each fact against each rule. 2.4.1 Methods of Inference Engine execution There are two methods of execution for rule based expert systems, forward chaining and backward chaining. And systems that implement both are called hybrid production rule systems. 2.4.2Forward Chaining This is a data driven and thus reactionary method. When applying forward chaining, the first step is to take the facts in the fact database and see if any combination of these matches all the antecedents (conditions) of one of the rules in the rule database. When all the antecedents of a rule are matched by facts in the database, then this rule is triggered. Usually, when a rule is triggered, it is then fired, which means its conclusion is added to the facts database. 2.4.3 Backward Chaining This method is goal driven, meaning that we start with a conclusion which the engine tries to satisfy. An inference engine using backward chaining would search the inference rules until it finds one which has a then clause that matches a desired goal. If the if clause of that inference rule is not known to be true, then it is added to the list of goals. Searches for sub goal conclusions begin, in hopes that, that will help satisfy some part of the current goal. It continues this process until either the initial conclusion is proven or there are no more sub goals. 2.5 Expert system shells Expert systems can be built that contain all the useful methods without any domain specific knowledge. These systems are called skeletal systems, shells or Artificial intelligence tools. The interpreter is separated from the domain-specific knowledge and thus creating a system that could be used to construct new expert systems by adding new knowledge corresponding to the new problem domain. Examples of shells include CLIPS, eGanges, OPS5, ART, JESS, and Eclipse. 2.6 Systems currently in use 2.6.1 Expert System for HIV/AIDS information The above expert system was created under the motivation of a Microsoft sponsored project called IHISM, which aims to contribute to the digital divide by developing an HIV and AIDS public information portal accessible through mobile phones [10]. The Expert system was tailored made with reference to Botswana, according to UNAIDS estimates, HIV/AIDS has affected every segment of Botswana society and one-third of Botswanas sexually-active population between the ages of 15 and 49 (out of a total population of 1.5 million) are infected with the virus, which is the highest rate in the world [11]. The information service portal would allow the public to request for information on topics related to HIV and AIDS such as descriptions, infection, testing, counselling and support, opportunistic diseases and paediatric care etc. The portal represents this information in the form of Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) service where the user inputs a query on any of the subjects. The system is meant to act as an online expert in HIV and AIDS information such that, some information may have to be derived through inference as opposed to simple data retrieval. The system is to accept as input a FAQ from the user and provide the most relevant answer to the question. Challenges of the system: Users may ask the questions differently in pursuit of the same answer System should be able to systematically analyse the questions and provide an appropriate answer System should be able to determine the various forms in which a typical FAQ question could be mapped to the relevant answer. Participants agreed that the expert system was not only easy to use 2.6.2 A Self-Learning Fuzzy Discrete Event System for HIV/AIDS Treatment Regimen Selection The HI virus mutates often and so a patient has to be frequently changing their medication course. And because of the strict drug adherence guidelines, it therefore becomes desirable to have a treatment- decision support system that is capable of self-learning. Basing on the fuzzy discrete event system (FDES) theory, a self-learning HIV/AIDS regimen selection system for the initial round of combination antiretroviral therapy, which is one of the most complex therapies in medicine, was developed [12]. The system consists of a treatment objectives classifier, fuzzy finite state machine models for treatment regimens, and a genetic-algorithm-based optimizer. System focuses on the four historically popular regimens with 32 associated treatment objectives involving the four most important clinical variables (potency, adherence, adverse effects, and future drug options). Advantages of the A Self-Learning Fuzzy Discrete Event System for HIV/AIDS Treatment Regimen Selection: Higher flexibility and scalability Easier knowledge upgrade for accommodating fast treatment strategy evolution with minimal system modification. Challenges of the A Self-Learning Fuzzy Discrete Event System for HIV/AIDS Treatment Regimen Selection: Patient-specific medical simulation raises several moral, ethical and policy questions that need to be answered before the methodologies can be put to widespread use. 2.6.3 A grid-based HIV expert system This system is for physicians to provide an adaptive interactive advice on treatment applied to drug resistant HI virus. Its knowledge base comprises of distributed data from infectious disease patient databases, literature on in-vitro and in-vivo pharmaceutical data, mutation databases, clinical trials, simulations and medical expert knowledge. The research uses a variety of statistical and numerical methods to identify relationships between HIV genetic sequences and antiviral resistance to investigate consistency of results. Access to and integration of data is done through existing Internet servers and emerging grid-based frameworks like Globus [13]. Advantages of the grid-based HIV expert system: Cellular automata-based simulations are used to predict the drug behaviour overtime Limitations of grid-based HIV expert system: Little data privacy. Sensitive clinical information is often kept on highly secure hospital networks 2.6.4 HIVPCES: a WWW-based HIV patient care expert system Diagnosing HIV-patients and prescribing the correct drug regimen can be a complex task whose outcome is dependent on a large number of variables. The cost of an incorrectly administered drug even for a very short time can be enormous; the HIV virus has specific drugs that can manage its growth at different levels of its life cycle. HIVPCES is a WWW-based HIV patient care expert system. It is an interactive expert system to diagnose HIV patients, and is managed centrally and accessed either as part of an intranet, or as an Internet site.781273 The user interface has been carefully designed to provide a high-level of interaction and therefore improve some of the current limitations of Web applications. The system comprises three modules: (1) A patient self-monitoring personal diary, to create a follow-up patient record; (2) A data analysis and visualisation tool; and (3) A section to allow patients to ask for advising and remote doctor support. abstract Advantages of a WWW-based HIV patient care expert system: Provides health professionals with new means for tele-monitoring and tele-caring patients. Limitations of a WWW-based HIV patient care expert system: Low system security Users anonymity features are required but hard to incorporate in this clinical domain. 2.7 Outline of proposed system In the vast world of medical expert systems there is little attention given to HIV /AIDS and when the topic does get acknowledged, little focus is put into the treatment and much more attention on the common FAQs about the virus. This system aims to center on HIV/AIDS suffering patients and offer advice on supplementary natural treatments such as herbal medicines that these patients can use. Unlike some of the current existing systems, which look at drug adherence plan, i.e. narrowing the users down to only, those on the HAART program, the proposed system can be used by patients whose CD4 count has not yet plummeted therefore allows the patient to have a informed decision on how to maintain a healthy life and have a boosted immune system. Proposed system will offer information on particular herbs, that is, the name, healing effects and the contra-indications and explanations for every herb it advises. Advantages of proposed system: Caters for both physicians and patients Caters for patients not yet on the HAART program, thus serves a wider user range Knowledge base is an integrated pool of various expert views therefore each answer supplied is about 85% System is a web based application, which is easily accessible from any computer or location with Internet access. 2.8 Conclusion The collected information above was used for the design and methodology of the proposed system. This chapter reviewed the domain in study i.e. HIV/AIDS, expert systems and a review of systems currently in existence. The following chapters of the document consist of the integration and modification of the gathered literature.

Heart of Darkness - Outline :: essays research papers

Marlow stands on the Thames River and remarks that the land he and his   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  comrades is standing on was once a place of darkness and an uncivilized   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  wilderness  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through nostalgia he remembers an incident from his past when he commanded a   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  steamboat on the Congo River.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He talks about the Company’s chief accountant who first mentions Kurtz to him.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The accountant tells him that Kurtz supplies more ivory for the company than   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  everyone else combined.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marlow’s interests in Kurtz is perked.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marlow discovers that the steamer he is supposed to command has been destroyed   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  in a wreck.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He meets the local manager who mentions Kurtz in conversation.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  He tells Marlow that Kurtz is ill and he must get to Kurtz swiftly and bring him   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  back for medical treatment.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marlow speaks with a brick maker who admires and envies Kurtz.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marlow eavesdrops on a conversation between the manager and uncle. He learns   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  that the manager resents Kurtz.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Three months pass. Marlow and a crew set sail towards Kurtz’s location.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Fifty miles before Kurtz’s station, they discover a hut bearing wood for the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  steamboat and message to proceed with caution.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Two days later they awaken to an attack by the savages. The helmsman is killed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kurtz blows the steamboat whistle to frighten away the savages. Dumps dead   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  helmsman’s body overboard so cannibals don’t get any ideas about eating him.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They arrive at the Inner Station. Greeted by a Russian that takes care of Kurtz.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Through conversation with the Russian, they learn that Kurtz has not been the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  most upstanding and moral person. He’s been abusive to the natives.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kurtz appears, carried on a stretcher.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They carry Kurtz onboard the steamboat.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The manager tells Marlow he disapproves of Kurtz.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Russian makes a visit to Marlow, tells him that Kurtz ordered the attack on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  their vessel that killed their helmsman.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Kurtz escapes and swims ashore. Marlow goes after him and cuts him off.  ·Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  They make a departure, savages show up, Marlow blows whistle and scares them   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  away again.

Response to John Holt “School Is Bad for Children”

An example of earlier change: English Agriculture: 1500-1850 taken from: Agricultural Revolution in England the transformation of the agrarian economy 1500-1850 by Mark Overton Cambridge University Press, 1996 c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 1 Estimates of English Agricultural Output 1520–1850 18 16 Output – population method 250 Output – volume method – value of total ag. output (crops, meat, dairy) in ? million at 1850 prices 12 200 10 150 8 100 6 Output Index 1700=100 14 Population (millions) 300 Population – in millions (previous limit 5-6 mln people) 4 50 2 0 1851 1831 1801 1791 1781 1761 1751 1741 1701 1661 651 1601 1551 80% of pop. in agric. for own family 1520 0 20% of pop. in agric. for markets c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 2 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p. 75& p. 8 A Rising Demand for Food 1520-1851 100 Agricultural population 90 % of total population 80 70 Rural non-agric’l population 60 50 40 Towns > 5000, excl London 30 20 10 London 0 1520 1600 1670 1700 1750 1801 1851 â€Å"†¦the impact of London on the demand for food was greater than these figures indicate because average consumption per head in London was at least double the national average. † c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 3Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p138 A Changing Social Structure England & Wales 1436-1973 % of ownership 120 Crown 100 Black Plague 80 1348, 1350s, 1370x Church Yeomen freeholders Dissolution 60 of Gentry Monasteries 40 1530 20 Civil War Great owners 1640s 0 1436 (Eng) c. 1690 range of estimates for 1690 c. 1790 1873 (Eng. ) â€Å"The pioneers of new methods in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries †¦ were not the great landowners but smaller farmers †¦ the most dramatic advances in output and land productivity came in those areas (such as Norfolk) where lordship was relatively weak. c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 4 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revol ution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p. 168 & 205 The Development of Markets < 1600 1601-1650 de cli ne of Local markets, in 800 market towns; strong reg. , no middlemen allowed 1701-1750 1751-1800 1801-1850 Middlemen indispensable gu lat io 1750: London Corn Exchange n between mkt towns 700 mi rivers 1660 900 mi rivers 1700 1838: 60 million letters sent 1790: end of domestic market reg. 15, 000 miles turnpikes en em l idd Trade 1663: reselling & storing allowed weak enforc’t of reg. Grain traded nationally & in N. Europe 1772 20,000 miles turnpikes rivate market’g by samples of 1690s? grain weekly grain prices published rivers linked m of se ri ma rke t re 1651-1700 1846: Corn Laws repealed 1830 c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 5 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, 137-47 passim Controlling the Use of Land by Enclosures post 1850 undated 1675-1749 1575-1674 1525-1574 1750-1849 100 90 1701-1750 1651-1700 1601-1650 1751-1800 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 1551-1600 County Durham 1551-1850 184,733 total acreage enclosed 0 % of enclosed acreage 1450-1524 pre 1450 South Midlands 1450-1850 2,850,866 total enclosed acreage 1801-1850 660: Modern Law of Mortgage â€Å"From the mid-eighteeth century the most usual way in which common rights were removed was through a specific act of parliament for the enclosure of a particular locality. †¦ Moreover the majority required for enclosure was calculated in terms of acres rather than landowners †¦ † â€Å"†¦ the major upsurge in agricultural output and productivity came after the mid-eighteenth century: this coincides with the major burst of parliamentary enclosure. † c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 6 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p. 149-150 & p. 167 Value of Enclosures In short, the farmer on enclosed land, in Kalm’s words, ‘could in a thousand ways improve his property and earn money. ’ [because] â €Å"the return on investment made in that land by an individual would accrue to that individual and not to the community as a whole. † c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 7 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p. 149-150 & p. 167 Development & Diffusion of Technology < 1600 1601-1650 1651-1700 1701-1750 1751-1800 1770s Jethro Tull seed drill imitated DIFFUSING 1801-1850 1851-1900 Norfolk system* spreads widely 1870 80% of wheat harvest’d with scythes 835 scythes 1790s R’m widespread plough made in 1830s ag. engin’g 1850s seed drill local widely used indus. dev’d foundaries LEARNING Upsurge in ag. writing 1767 Royal Lancashire Ag. Society 1770s 1st local farmers’ assoc. 1664 Royal Society studies ag. practices 1630 turnips* known as fodder crop 1803 23 local farmers’ assoc. 1838 Royal Ag. Society of Eng. 1850s wide range of farm’g journals: 17,000 readers 1855 700 local farmers’ assoc. 1731 Jethro Tull’s seed drill INTRODUCING 1500s designs for seed drills published 1845 Circencester Ag’l College 1650s clover* appears as fodder crop 1730 new R’m lough patented 1799 scythes introduced in S. Engl’d c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 8 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, 122-32, passim Changes in Farming Techniques Norfolk 1250-1854 100% % land in turnips 90% 80% % land in clover 70% 60% % land in legumes 50% 40% % land in grain 30% 20% Use of arable sown land, excluding fallow 2/3rd soil nitrogen lost by 1850 => need to manage soil nitrogen 10% 0% 1250-1349 1350-1449 1584-1640 1660-1739 1836 1854 â€Å"Partly because these integrated mixed-farming systems comprised so many mutally dependent components their evolution took time.Hence the long lag between the appearance in England of clover, turnips and the other components of the Norfolk four-course system and the perfection of the system itself, whose widespread diffusion must be dated to the first half of the nineteenth century. † c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 9 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p120 & p. 16 Larger Farms, Fewer Farmers 1714-1833 percent of all estate acreage 100 The Example of the Leveson-Gower estates 1714-1833 Farm Size >200 acres 80 60 40 100-200 acres 20 20-100 acres 0-20 acres 0 1714-20 1759-79 1807-13 1829-33 c B.J. Heinzen 1998 p. 10 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p174 The Sequence of Change 1500-1850 6. Spread of technical knowledge & use 5. New property rights secure benefits of investment 4. Regulations adapt to informal market realities 3. Development of informal markets to meet need 2. Fluidity in social structure; willingness to experiment 1. A rising demand/need c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 11 Time Lags in the Agricultural Revolution â€Å"Partly because these integrated mixed-farming systems comprised so many mutally dependent components t heir evolution took time.Hence the long lag between the appearance in England of clover, turnips and the other components of the Norfolk four-course system and the perfection of the system itself, whose widespread diffusion must be dated to the first half of the nineteenth century. † Mark Overton, 1996 Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850 c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 12 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p120 detailed back-up slides follow c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 13 The Sequence of Change 1500-1850 6. Spread of technical knowledge & use 1770-1870 diffusion of agricultural techniques 5.New property rights secure benefits of investment 1750-1850 Parliamentary Enclosure Acts 4. Regulations adapt to informal market realities 1750 London Corn Exchange; 1790 Domestic mrkt reg. ended 3. Development of informal markets to meet need: 1601-1650 corn traded between market towns 2. Fluidity in social structure; willingness to experiment 16 40s Civil War 1. A rising demand/need 1520 demand rising c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 14 Changes in Norfolk Farming 1250-1854 Wheat Yields & Animals 70 Use of Arable Sown Land* 100% 90% 60 1250-1349 80% 1350-1449 60% 1660-1739 40 70% 1584-1640 50 50% 30 40% 1854 30% 0 20% 10 10% 0% 0 Livestock ratio** Draught beasts*+ Wheat Yields* **Livestock units/100 acres *+ Oxen & horses/100 sown acres *Bushels of wheat/ acres 12501349 13501449 15841640 % Land in turnips % Land in clover 16601739 1836 1854 % Land in legumes % Land in grain *Excluding fallow land c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 15 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p120 English Land Use & Yields 1300-1850 1700 = 100 200 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 1700 1800 1850 Arable Sown arable Meadow & pasture Total 250 200 Cereal yields 150 100 Wheat yields 50 0 1300 1600 1700 1750 1800 1850 B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 16 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p. 86 Enclosing the Land 1450-1850 Enclosures in South Midlands 1450-1850 100 90 % of total enclosed acreage 80 70 Enclosures in County Durham 1551-1850 100 90 undated post 1850 80 70 1751-1800 1750-1849 60 60 1675-1749 1701-1750 50 50 1575-1674 40 1801-1850 1525-1574 40 1651-1700 30 30 1601-1650 1450-1524 20 pre 1450 20 1551-1600 10 10 0 0 (2,850,866 total enclosed acreage) (184,733 total acreage enclosed) c B. J. Heinzen 1998 p. 17 Mark Overton, Agricultural Revolution in England †¦ 1500-1850, 1996, p. 149-150

Free Essays on The “Birth“ (about Frankenstein)

The â€Å"Birth† In researching the life of Mary Shelley, I found that pregnancy and childbirth, as well as death, were a big part of her life. She had four children and a miscarriage that almost killed her. This was all before the age of twenty-five. Only one of her children survived to adulthood and outlived her. Her first child was born prematurely in February of 1815 and died in March. As any mother would be, she was devastated by this and took a long time to recover. Mary Shelley’s second child, William, was born January 24, 1816. That is when she thought of the story. Her first child had died and her second was only 6 months old. About six months later she was pregnant again. Pregnancy was at the front of Shelley's mind at that point in her life. This information gave me a new outlook on the story of Frankenstein. This may be a stretch, but I think that Frankenstein is partially about the fears of a pregnant woman. The story expresses many of the fears of a mother-to-be; What if my baby is deformed? Will I still love it like a normal child? Am I capable of being a good mother? Will I be okay through childbirth? I believe that Mary Shelley was expressing her fears related to the death of her first child, her ability to nurture, and the fact that her mother died having her. This is reflected in Victor’s failure as a parent. Victor Frankenstein labored on his creation for approximately nine months. Finally, he describes the â€Å"birth†: "I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open; it breathed hard, and a convulsive motion agitated its limbs." (Pg. 51) Instead of reaching out to his child, Victor runs out of the room disgusted by the creature’s ugliness. When the creature follows after him, Victor continues to run away, completely abandoning his creation. While creating his â€Å"child†, Victor never considered whether it would even want to exist. He also did not think about the creature's appearance... Free Essays on The â€Å"Birthâ€Å" (about Frankenstein) Free Essays on The â€Å"Birthâ€Å" (about Frankenstein) The â€Å"Birth† In researching the life of Mary Shelley, I found that pregnancy and childbirth, as well as death, were a big part of her life. She had four children and a miscarriage that almost killed her. This was all before the age of twenty-five. Only one of her children survived to adulthood and outlived her. Her first child was born prematurely in February of 1815 and died in March. As any mother would be, she was devastated by this and took a long time to recover. Mary Shelley’s second child, William, was born January 24, 1816. That is when she thought of the story. Her first child had died and her second was only 6 months old. About six months later she was pregnant again. Pregnancy was at the front of Shelley's mind at that point in her life. This information gave me a new outlook on the story of Frankenstein. This may be a stretch, but I think that Frankenstein is partially about the fears of a pregnant woman. The story expresses many of the fears of a mother-to-be; What if my baby is deformed? Will I still love it like a normal child? Am I capable of being a good mother? Will I be okay through childbirth? I believe that Mary Shelley was expressing her fears related to the death of her first child, her ability to nurture, and the fact that her mother died having her. This is reflected in Victor’s failure as a parent. Victor Frankenstein labored on his creation for approximately nine months. Finally, he describes the â€Å"birth†: "I saw the dull yellow eye of the creature open; it breathed hard, and a convulsive motion agitated its limbs." (Pg. 51) Instead of reaching out to his child, Victor runs out of the room disgusted by the creature’s ugliness. When the creature follows after him, Victor continues to run away, completely abandoning his creation. While creating his â€Å"child†, Victor never considered whether it would even want to exist. He also did not think about the creature's appearance...

Free Essays on Their Eyes Were Watching God And Invisible Man Essay

Life has never been easy for African-Americans. Since this country's formation, the African-American culture has been scorned, disrespected and degraded. It wasn't until the middle of the 21st century that African-American culture began to be looked upon in a more tolerant light. This shift came about because of the many talented African-American writers, actors, speakers and activists who worked so hard to gain respect for themselves and their culture. Two writers were on the front lines of this movement, Zora Neale Hurston and Ralph Ellison. Their novels, Invisible Man and Their Eyes Were Watching God, probed deeply into the life and culture of the African-American, something that was practically unheard of. But not only did their novels shed light on the African culture, but they also shifted away from the traditional Romantic style of writing. Instead of focusing on religion or society, these novels focused on self-awareness, pride, and finding happiness. The merit of these novels pervades every page, but can especially be found in the themes, diction, and characterization. Both novels shared two similar themes: the pursuit of happiness and self-actualization. These themes had to be dealt with tenderly in an intolerant, white-culture society. Both Hurston and Ellison did this beautifully, in that their stories were not forceful nor preachy, but merely simple, candid tales of the lives of two ordinary African-Americans. Also, both authors refused to make their stories a fairy tale. At the end of each novel, neither Janie nor Invisible Man are as happy as they'd like to be. But, both novels focus not on the bittersweet end, but rather what the characters learned before they reached the end. Janie realized that her strength was in herself and her pride, with or without Tea Cake. And Invisible Man realized that "My problem was that I always tried to go in ... Free Essays on Their Eyes Were Watching God And Invisible Man Essay Free Essays on Their Eyes Were Watching God And Invisible Man Essay Life has never been easy for African-Americans. Since this country's formation, the African-American culture has been scorned, disrespected and degraded. It wasn't until the middle of the 21st century that African-American culture began to be looked upon in a more tolerant light. This shift came about because of the many talented African-American writers, actors, speakers and activists who worked so hard to gain respect for themselves and their culture. Two writers were on the front lines of this movement, Zora Neale Hurston and Ralph Ellison. Their novels, Invisible Man and Their Eyes Were Watching God, probed deeply into the life and culture of the African-American, something that was practically unheard of. But not only did their novels shed light on the African culture, but they also shifted away from the traditional Romantic style of writing. Instead of focusing on religion or society, these novels focused on self-awareness, pride, and finding happiness. The merit of these novels pervades every page, but can especially be found in the themes, diction, and characterization. Both novels shared two similar themes: the pursuit of happiness and self-actualization. These themes had to be dealt with tenderly in an intolerant, white-culture society. Both Hurston and Ellison did this beautifully, in that their stories were not forceful nor preachy, but merely simple, candid tales of the lives of two ordinary African-Americans. Also, both authors refused to make their stories a fairy tale. At the end of each novel, neither Janie nor Invisible Man are as happy as they'd like to be. But, both novels focus not on the bittersweet end, but rather what the characters learned before they reached the end. Janie realized that her strength was in herself and her pride, with or without Tea Cake. And Invisible Man realized that "My problem was that I always tried to go in ...

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Jot Case Study Essay Example for Free

Jot Case Study Essay There is a large number of companies of various sizes which design and sell toys to retailers globally. Most toy companies outsource the manufacture of their toys and currently 86% of the world’s toys are manufactured in China. Most of the rest of the world’s toys are manufactured in other Asian countries, with only low volumes of products manufactured in Europe and the USA. The toy market is divided up into a variety of sectors, by children’s age range and the type of toy. There are different sectors with toys aimed for babies under one year old; children aged 1 to 3 years and pre-school children of 3 to 5 years. There is a further sector for children of school age of 5 years and upwards. Additionally the toy market is broken down into categories of toys. Research has shown that children aged 2 to 4 years old receive the most toys in quantity but that the most money is spent on toys for the 6 to 8 year age group. Toys sold in the market to those children aged between 9 and 11 tend to be more sophisticated. Some of these games need access to the Internet and most involve more complex programming. The other feature of this age group is that the ‘buyer’ tends to switch to the child from the parent. That is not to say that the child pays the money, more that the child drives the buying decision, always subject to the budget and final say so of the parent. The current trend in toy sales is towards electronic toys and computer assisted learning. Many of these electronic toys are highly developed to be attractive to children. Sales of traditional toys and games have achieved relatively low growth in the European market over the last 10 years, whereas electronic toys and merchandise from popular films and TV programmes have seen reasonable growth. Merchandise from films and TV programmes are licensed to toy manufacturers or toy retailers that can achieve high short-term profits depending on the licensing arrangement and the volume of sales. However, fashion trends are difficult to predict and toy retailers can be left with large volumes of unsold inventories if the toys are unpopular or less in demand than originally anticipated. The toy market is highly seasonal and is dominated by the pre-Christmas sales period. Typically, around 30% to 55% of toy sales occur in the fourth quarter of the calendar year (October to December). China has established itself as a high quality, low-cost manufacturing base for a wide range of consumer products for global markets. It does not, as yet, principally design and create new products, but instead is capable of manufacturing products that have been created by Western companies. It is necessary for the companies which create the designs, whether the product is a toy, a range of clothing or a computer chip, to ensure that the design is protected by registering the design for intellectual property rights (IPR’s). However, in many instances small changes can be made so that ‘copies’ of the design do not breach the IPR. Legal protection of IPR’s is becoming increasingly important in today’s global markets, where resources are sourced in one area of the world, manufactured into finished products in another area (principally in China and other Asian countries) and then sold in other geographical markets. Most toy retailers procure a range of products from many different toy companies. There is a wide range of companies, from small to very large multi-national companies, which operate as toy design and distributing companies. These companies design, patent or license the toys and then outsource the manufacture to specialist toy manufacturers. Most toy companies outsource the manufacture of toys. Contracts are usual in the industry and would normally include clauses concerning design quality, delivery schedules and penalties for breaches of contract. The toy companies then sell their products to toy retailers. There is also a large discount market for toys where toys of inferior quality are sold. The retail prices in this market are often 50% less than in the conventional markets. There are several global toy fairs each year that attract buyers from toy retailers across the world. One of the largest toy fairs is held in Hong Kong in January each year, where new toys are launched for the following Christmas market. Other global toy fairs are held in Europe, Russia and the USA, also early in the calendar year. At these toy fairs, buyers will assess and choose which of the new toys may achieve high sales. The toy fairs attract a wide range of exhibitors that are launching new toys, both large listed companies and small companies. The level of sales achieved by many toy companies will often depend on orders generated from buyers attending these international toy fairs. Therefore, it is important that prototype toys and marketing literature is ready in order to meet the requirements of these global buyers at the start of each calendar year. Jot The Jot brand was established in 1998 by husband and wife team Jon and Tani Grun. The company initially designed a small range of toys that were manufactured in their home European country. These toys proved to be very popular in their home country and Jon Grun then expanded the range of products. By 2003, within five years of starting Jot, the founders were encouraged to see Jot’s products ordered by many large toy retailers across Europe. By this stage the company had grown considerably, and had annual sales of almost â‚ ¬2 million. Commencing in 2004, Jot started outsourcing all of its manufacturing to a range of manufacturing companies in China in order to reduce its cost base and to enable the company to price its products more competitively. By the end of 2010 sales revenue exceeded â‚ ¬8 million and the company had achieved substantial sales revenue growth each year. Jot has seen its sales revenue grow by 16% in the year ended 31 December 2010 and by almost 18% in the year to 31 December 2011. A summary of Jot’s key personnel is shown in Appendix 1 on page 11. Jot’s product range and serviced age groups Jot currently has a relatively small range of 34 products aimed at only 2 age groups. These are the pre-school age group of 3 to 5 year olds and the next age group of 5 to 8 year olds. It currently does not produce any toys aimed at babies aged less than one, toddlers aged under 3 years old or children aged over 8 years old. Jot’s products include a range of toys designed by the company, for which it holds the IPR’s, as well as some licensed toys, for which it pays a license fee to the companies that hold the IPR’s. Jot’s products mainly include electronic features and this is seen as one of the strengths of its products. Jot currently launches around 5 totally new products each year. It also enhances certain aspects of some of its other products to refresh their appearance and features. It also has a range of toys that sell consistently well and have not changed materially for a few years. Jot’s products for the 3 to 5 year old age group include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Construction toys with sound effects and electronic actions. Learning products such as mini-computers which ask questions and the child responds by pressing different keys. Toy vehicles some of which have electronic features such as sounds and lights. Plastic toys which have â€Å"animatronics† to make the toys move, for example, toy dinosaurs. Toy cameras. Electronic learning products to aid learning the alphabet and basic maths skills. Licensed soft play toys based on film and TV programme characters. Licensed plastic figures, cars and machines based on film and TV programme characters, some of which include electronic features that generate movements and sounds, including theme tunes. Jot’s products for the 5 to 8 year old age group include: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Toy cameras and simple video cameras. Dolls and action figures some of which move and make sounds. Small hand-held games boxes for playing computer games and educational learning products to improve maths and readings skills. A range of games and educational learning products for the hand-held games boxes. In summary, most of Jot’s toys have simple electronics that make a sound or enable movement. Some of the more advanced toys have simple programming to enable educational aspects of the toy to be more interactive. Jot’s products are sold to toy retailers for between â‚ ¬7 and â‚ ¬38. These are Jot’s selling prices to toy retailers. Most of the retailers will then sell these toys at a large mark-up, which can be as much as 50% to 100%, i.e. a toy procured from Jot at â‚ ¬10 could be retailed to the end customer at as much as â‚ ¬20. Margins vary from product to product and whereas toys aimed at the 9 -11 age group carry more sophistication (and hence risk) they also carry higher margins. In the year ended 31 December 2011 Jot’s actual sales volumes were over 706,000 units across Jot’s entire range of products. The total sales revenue for the year ended 31 December 2011 was â‚ ¬9,866,000, which resulted in an average selling price of just under â‚ ¬14 per unit. Over 80% of Jot’s product sales are sold to retailers for â‚ ¬20 or less. Financials and shares Jot has achieved a high annual growth in sales, with sales revenue reaching â‚ ¬9,866,000 in the year ended 31 December 2011, a growth of 17.9% from 2010 (â‚ ¬8,371,000 sales revenue for year ended 31 December 2010). Additionally, it has achieved an operating profit margin of 5.58% in the year to 31 December 2011, a rise from the previous year’s profit margin of 5.41%. An extract from Jot’s accounts for the year ended 31 December 2011 is shown in Appendix 2 on page 12. Jot’s Statement of Cash Flows for the year ended 31 December 2011 is shown in Appendix 3 on page 13. Jot is a young, growing company that is dependent on loan finance. Jot has three bank loans totalling â‚ ¬1,600,000, each at an interest rate of 10% per year, which are due for repayment as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ Bank loan of â‚ ¬500,000 due in January 2014. (about 14 months from the ‘current date’ Bank loan of â‚ ¬500,000 due in January 2015. Bank loan of â‚ ¬600,000 due in January 2020. Jot’s bank has been very responsive to the company’s needs for cash in order to fund its growth but has indicated that at the present time it would not be able to provide any additional long-term finance. Jot has an overdraft facility of â‚ ¬1,500,000, which the bank has stated is the maximum limit. The current cost of its overdraft is at an interest rate of 12% per year. At 31 December 2011, Jot’s overdraft was â‚ ¬960,000. Jot’s business is highly seasonal with a significant proportion of sales occurring in quarters 3 and 4. As Jot builds up its inventory in preparation for higher levels of sales in quarters 3 and 4, cash flow is negative during the second half of the year. This is because outsourced manufacturing for the majority of all products occurs mainly from the end of quarter 2, during all of quarter 3 and the beginning of quarter 4. Jot is a private limited company and not listed on any stock exchange. It has 40,000 shares in issue, each of â‚ ¬1 par value. The company has an authorised share capital of 200,000 shares. To date, the Board of Jot has not declared any dividends. The shares are held as follows: Number of shares held at 31 December 2011 Jon Grun Tani Grun Alana Lotz Boris Hepp Michael Werner Total 12,000 12,000 8,000 4,000 4,000 40,000 Percentage shareholding % 30 30 20 10 10 100 Production of toys Jot has its own in-house team of designers who are involved in designing toys that are unique, innovative and fun to play with. The production of new toys is split into two stages. Firstly, the design stage involves the design team developing a new toy and after it has been approved, the second stage is where the operations team is responsible for contracting an outsourced manufacturer for the mass production of each product. The head of Jot’s design team is Alana Lotz, Product Development Director. She is responsible for researching the market trends in toys globally and establishing the availability of new innovative technology that could be incorporated into new toy designs. This is what helps to make Jot’s product range innovative and at the ‘cutting edge’ of new technology, as the products incorporate new technology electronic chip components. Research and development work on new product development usually occurs between May and December each year so that the new products have been fully tested ready for the annual launch of Jot’s new range of toys each January. Jot currently launches 5/6 totally new products each year and the development costs are generally between â‚ ¬0.1 and â‚ ¬0.25 million for each new product. The total design and development costs are around â‚ ¬1.2 million each year. This is included in administrative expenses in Jot’s statement of comprehensive income. Jot has just finalised its range of new products for 2013, so as to allow time to produce marketing literature and prepare prototypes ready for the global toy fairs being held in January to March 2013 in various locations around the world. The design team which is based in the UK develops all new products through the following stages: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Brainstorming for new ideas. Designing a new product using Jot’s CAD / CAM IT system. Production of first prototype. Market research and improvements through to production of second prototype. Sign off by design and management team. Application for intellectual property rights (IPR’s) for each product design. The design team is kept fresh by the introduction of new designers each year. Good designers are kept on but those that are seen as burnt out are let go. Early in 2012 a new designer was employed named Indy Kaplia who had some radical new designs to offer. One of these toys (a flying spaceship) had been rushed into production in time for the 2012 Christmas season and had been greeted well by the retailers. Jot uses a specialised company, based in Europe for the manufacture and testing of all prototype products and there are often two or three stages involved before the prototype product is produced to the satisfaction of the designers. Only when each product is signed off by the design and management team can Jot’s legal team apply for the IPR’s for the product design. Then the approved new product designs go into production by outsourced manufacturers. The designs are then electronically transferred to Jot’s operations team headed up by Michael Werner, Operations Director, for the selection and appointment of outsourced manufacturers. The stages in the production process are as follows: †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ †¢ Designs are sent electronically to outsourced manufacturers for tender. Outsourced manufacturer(s) selected and appointed and volumes and delivery deadlines for production agreed. Packaging designs and artwork are prepared and approved. Production samples are reviewed by Jot’s in-house Quality Assurance team located both in Europe and in Asia. Production is commenced to meet agreed volume and delivery deadlines. Michael Werner is responsible for the selection, appointment and monitoring of Jot’s outsourced manufacturers and all aspects of the management of the outsourced manufacturing process for Jot’s products. Jot’s products are all manufactured by a small number of specialised outsourced manufacturing companies which are all based in China. Jot is responsible for shipments of all products from its outsourced manufacturers to its warehouses or sometimes directly to customers.