What Is Phylogeny Definition and Examples

Phylogeny is the study of relationships among different groups of organisms and their evolutionary development. Phylogeny attempts to trace the evolutionary history of all life on the planet. It is based on the phylogenetic hypothesis that all living organisms share a common ancestry. The relationships among organisms are depicted in what is known as a phylogenetic tree. Relationships are determined by shared characteristics, as indicated through the comparison of genetic and anatomical similarities. In molecular phylogeny, analysis of DNA and protein structure is used to determine genetic relationships among different organisms. For example, the analysis of cytochrome C, a protein in cell mitochondria that functions in the electron transport system and energy production, is used to determine degrees of relationship among organisms based on similarities of amino acid sequences in cytochrome C. Similarities in characteristics of biochemical structures, such as DNA and proteins, are then used to develop a phylogenetic tree based on inherited shared traits. Key Takeaways: What Is Phylogeny? Phylogeny is the study of the evolutionary development of groups of organisms. The relationships are hypothesized based on the idea that all life is derived from a common ancestor.Relationships among organisms are determined by shared characteristics, as indicated through genetic and anatomical comparisons.A phylogeny is represented in a diagram known as a phylogenetic tree. The branches of the tree represent ancestral and/or descendant lineages.Relatedness among taxa in a phylogenic tree is determined by descent from a recent common ancestor.Phylogeny and taxonomy are two systems for classifying organisms in systematic biology. While the goal of phylogeny is to reconstruct the evolutionary tree of life, taxonomy uses a hierarchical format to classify, name, and identify organisms. Phylogenetic Tree A phylogenetic tree, or cladogram, is a schematic diagram used as a visual illustration of proposed evolutionary relationships among taxa. Phylogenetic trees are diagrammed based on assumptions of cladistics, or phylogenetic systematics. Cladistics is a classification system that categorizes organisms based on shared traits, or synapomorphies, as determined by genetic, anatomical, and molecular analysis. The main assumptions of cladistics are: All organisms descend from a common ancestor.New organisms develop when existing populations split into two groups.Over time, lineages experience changes in characteristics. This phylogenic tree show phylogeny based on differences in the protein sequence of cytochrome c in organisms ranging from Neurospora mold to humans. Encyclopaedia Britannica/UIG/Getty Image   Phylogenetic tree structure is determined by shared traits among different organisms. Its tree-like branching represents diverging taxa from a common ancestor. Terms that are important to understand when interpreting a phylogenetic tree diagram include: Nodes: These are points on a phylogenetic tree where branching occurs. A node represents the end of the ancestral taxon and the point where a new species splits from its predecessor.Branches: These are the lines on a phylogenetic tree that represent ancestral and/or descendant lineages. Branches arising from nodes represent descendant species that split from a common ancestor.Monophyletic Group (Clade): This group is a single branch on a phylogenetic tree that represents a group of organisms that are descended from a most recent common ancestor.Taxon (pl.Taxa): Taxa are specific groupings or categories of living organisms. The tips of branches in a phylogenetic tree end in a taxon. Taxa that share a more recent common ancestor are more closely related than taxa with a less recent common ancestor. For example, in the image above, horses are more closely related to donkeys than to pigs. This is because horses and donkeys share a more recent common ancestor. Additionally, it can be determined that horses and donkeys are more closely related because they belong to a monophyletic group that does not include pigs. Avoiding Misinterpretations of Taxa Relatedness This phylogenic tree show phylogeny based on differences in the protein sequence of cytochrome c in organisms.   Encyclopaedia Britannica/UIG/Getty Image Relatedness in a phylogenetic tree is determined by descent from a recent common ancestor. When interpreting a phylogenetic tree, there is a tendency to presume that distance between taxa can be used to determine relatedness. However, branch tip proximity is positioned arbitrarily and can not be used to determine relatedness. For example, in the above image, the branch tips including penguins and turtles are positioned closely together. This may be incorrectly interpreted as close relatedness between the two taxa. By looking at the most recent common ancestors, it can be correctly determined that the two taxa are distantly related. Another way that phylogenetic trees can be misinterpreted is by counting the number of nodes between taxa to determine relatedness. In the phylogenetic tree above, pigs and rabbits are separated by three nodes, while dogs and rabbits are separated by two nodes. It could be misinterpreted that dogs are more closely related to rabbits because the two taxa are separated by fewer nodes. Taking into consideration the most recent common ancestry, it can be correctly determined that dogs and pigs are equally related to rabbits. Phylogeny vs. Taxonomy This image shows the hierarchical taxonimic categorization of a dog. CNX OpenStax/Wikimedia Commons/CC BY 4.0   Phylogeny and taxonomy are two systems for classifying organisms. They represent the two main fields of systematic biology. Both of these systems rely on characteristics or traits for classifying organisms into different groups. In phylogenetics, the goal is to trace the evolutionary history of species by attempting to reconstruct the phylogeny of life or the evolutionary tree of life. Taxonomy is a hierarchical system for naming, classifying, and identifying organisms. Phylogenic characteristics are used to help establish taxanomic groupings. The taxonomic organization of life classifies organisms into three domains:   Archaea: This domain includes prokaryotic organisms (those that lack a nucleus) that differ from bacteria in membrane composition and RNA.Bacteria: This domain includes prokaryotic organisms with unique cell wall compositions and RNA types.Eukarya: This domain includes eukaryotes, or organisms with a true nucleus. Eukaryotic organisms include plants, animals, protists, and fungi. Organisms in the domain Eukarya are further categorized into smaller groupings: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Species. These groupings are also divided into intermediate categories such as subphyla, suborders, superfamilies, and superclasses.   Taxonomy is not only useful for categorizing organisms but also establishes a specific naming system for organisms. Known as binomial nomenclature, this system provides a unique name for an organism consisting of a genus name and species name. This universal naming system is recognized worldwide and avoids confusion over the naming of organisms. Sources Dees, Jonathan et al. Student interpretations of phylogenetic trees in an introductory biology course CBE life sciences education vol. 13,4 (2014): 666-76.  Journey Into Phylogenetic Systematics. UCMP, www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/clad/clad4.html.

Ethical Dilemmas Right And Wrong - 1983 Words

Ethical Dilemmas Right and Wrong It’s quite often that I cross a dilemma. Most of the times it’s something so simple as, how am I going to get my two kids to practice at the same time, in different places. It’s not often that I come across an ethical dilemma. â€Å"Ethics involves making moral judgements about what is right or wrong, good or bad† (Banks,2). Banks says that â€Å"an ethical dilemma arises only when a decision must be made that involves a conflict at the personal, interpersonal, institutional, or societal level or raises issues of rights or moral character (Banks,12).† This statement all boils down to what the decision is. Everyday we have to make decisions that involve other people, and as for me, I am always mentally aware, and prepared to abide by the good, and correct or right way. As life has it though, we are not always able to provide the right answers, and sometimes find ourselves in situations that don’t line up with our morals. Itâ₠¬â„¢s all about how we handle those times. I also feel that sometimes bad things have to happen to get good things to happen. It’s such of that as if someone goes to jail for beating up a man that was beating a woman. Yes, it’s wrong to beat the living crap out of someone, but if you saved that woman for even just a few minutes it might be worth it to you. I think this is why I enjoyed the books. It shows that sometimes things have to be handled or are handled in what society deems wrong or not moral. For me these books showed whatShow MoreRelatedMoral Dilemmas673 Words   |  3 PagesMoral Dilemmas Moral Dilemmas Introduction Moral dilemmas are situations, which cause conflicts, and the decision made, can breach one or another principle or claim. The action taken by the subject can be something wrong or something undermining another option. Dilemmas cause conflicts where the subject has to settle on the appropriate action to be followed for certain options available; hence unable to decide the course of action to pursue. They are moral dilemmas because they conflict withRead MoreBook Review: How Godd People Make Tough Choices Essay1043 Words   |  5 PagesTOUGH CHOICES This book is aimed at helping people make ethical choices, through a readable mixture of analysis, guidance, and case studies. It was easy for me to identify with the case studies. The basic premise is that tough choices revolve not around questions of right vs. wrong rather tough choices revolve around questions of right vs. right. Based on study of thousands of real ethical dilemmas, Kidder presents four ethical paradigm pairs: Truth vs. loyalty Individual vs. community Read MoreMoral Dilemmas At The Yorktown Gym1245 Words   |  5 PagesMoral Dilemmas In the Workplace: Yorktown Gym Ethical dilemmas can arise in any situation and they can happen in a group setting or an individual setting. Workplace dilemmas can occur at any time and can appear as minor situations, or they can be a more serious situation. In individual settings, ethical dilemmas may seem more prominent and harder to determine what the right action to take would actually be, because no one else is present to say whether something is right or wrong. This is the situationRead MoreCritical Analysis of Ethical Relativism Essay1069 Words   |  5 PagesWhen it comes to moral dilemmas between cultures, there is a grey area that can sometimes make it difficult to resolve issues surrounding the dilemma. What is morality? 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Me and College free essay sample

â€Å"Hello† (Insert smile here). â€Å"How are you doing today College?† (Insert outreached hand for a handshake here). â€Å"Oh, you need to know my full name for your records? No problem. My first name is Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. My middle name is Generalized Anxiety Disorder. And my last name is Major Depressive Disorder. Nice to meet you.† When I sign my names on documents I write â€Å"Julie Driscoll†, but if names defined us, the above would be my name. From one snowy winter in February of 2003 to this very day in January 2009 I have been climbing an uphill battle with mental disorders. I have obsessed about the most disturbing and petrifying thoughts one could imagine. I have worried about everything from my day in school to the chances of me developing schizophrenia. And I have spent weeks upon weeks lying in bed telling myself there is no point in getting up. While most kids dread going to class because of the teacher, workload, etc, I worried I would faint, â€Å"go insane†, and throw up. We will write a custom essay sample on Me and College or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page I spent countless class periods curled up in a ball in the nurse’s office hiding from the world. While most kids stayed after school to play basketball or practice for the drama club, I went home to sleep away the pain. While kids worried about the next school dance, I worried I would fall asleep and never wake up again. I have spent more hours in psychiatrist’s and psychologist’s offices then I have living life. I have been hospitalized twice because (in my own words at the moment) â€Å"I just can’t handle this anymore.† Perhaps hell isn’t an appropriate word for a college admissions essay, but to make my point clear, you could compare the way I have felt to hell. Now, that was the suffering part. Next is the healing part. I’m not going to pretend no one has ever held my hand through all of this, reassured me that I would one day feel okay or just sat with me and really listened. People helped. But let me tell you how they helped. They helped with the door shut. They helped with lowered voices. And they helped behind the public, secluded in their own world. In my high school, there was never a time where I felt I wasn’t getting the attention I needed to feel safe. But still, everything about me was treated like a secret. I’ve been given the impression from this world early on that people don’t talk about mental disorders. More than half of people on this earth will experience either anxiety or depression in their lifetime. But we can’t talk about it openly yet? I am so frustrated with this world we live in where it is shameful to have a chemical imbalance. Spending so much of my high school years in the nurse’s office has given me the chance to witness all kinds of illnesses. For example, there were a few students who would regularly come in to check their levels for diabetes. Everyone was there to watch them take care of themselves. But yet when someone came into the office with tears or shaking with fear, everyone else was shooed out. Each morning in my school we have announcements where there are lists of students read off such as â€Å"so and so to guidance,† and â€Å"so and so to the nurse.† When it comes time to call down kids to see the school psychologist, it is simply â€Å"so and so to the office.† During my second hospital stay, I asked some teenagers if their friends knew where they were. Time after time the answer was â€Å"Of course not!† Pity my frustrations? Please don’t. Accept me to your college and let me change the world by first changing myself. After six years of suffering I am ready to actively engage in psychology courses and figure out for myself how to make me and the rest of the world feel understood. I think College can help me achieve my goals by changing the way people look at me, my mental disorders, and the rest of the mentally ill in this world. I want the stigma on mental illness to be significantly erased in my lifetime. I think I have a big enough eraser in my tool box to make this happen. Please allow me the opportunity to let me bring my eraser to your campus. Thank you for your time.

Strategic Information Systems of an Organization Free-Sample

Questions: Write the Literature Review would be on an Organisation that is using Accounting Software Packages in Australia. Answer: Organization Structure The current organization structure of the company is shown below. Operational problems The principle of accounting independence has not been followed when designing the structure of the organization. Due to this, the functional team handling a particular physical activity is also taking care of the accounting aspect of that activity. This can lead to unreliable information. Due to unreliable information, the organization may take faulty decisions. Inefficiency may also be experienced since the team will be forced to perform all the tasks of the physical activity together with accounting (Schaffer, 2008). System acquisition method The organization has very unique information needs that can be satisfied with the use of a commercial software that is already finished and completely tested for implementation. Generally, commercial application are usually customized to suit specific industries (Bragg, 2002). System flow chart The sales process flow chart is an important instrument for business. It gives the company an opportunity to imagine and understand the sales procedures, disclose and also visually highlight issues or holdups, and forecast on sales. Flowchart Control problems Though there exists security risks and challenges which are related to cloud computing systems. Approaches to deal with the security threats that face cloud computing systems include information-centric security, predicate cryptography, and authentication measures (Joshi, 2013). Literature Review An accounting software/package is a system that is used on a computer and it perfoms all accounting tasks, such as recording, storing, sorting, retrieving, analyzing, presenting and conveying accounting information to different shareholder groups (Spathis, 2006). Applications enhance the quality of accounting data and promotes moving efficiency between organizations sectors and among organizations branches and their numerous users or investor groups. All the necessary information to the organization of any company requires the valuation of numerous cost objects to do a proper evaluation; correct data is required regarding all resources that are consumed directly or indirectly (Drury, 2008). The introduction to using accounting software is precious to organizations. However, the software applications should have a general guideline on what application standards the software need to have. There are four general features that accounting packages must have (Rushinek and Rushinek, 1995). They include; ease of installation, ease of use, should have seller support and the capability to be updated. Training should also be done on how to use the applications so that the future needs of the organization or business can be met. This can only be achieved through training. An appropriate accounting application should have a compatibility feature. A compatibility feature is smooth functional system constant with operations, workforce and administrative structure (Byrd Turners, 2000) Flexibility is of great importance in accounting applications. Flexibility can be defined as an n application capacity alongside a variation of course or a deviation from the programmed path of activity (Genus Dickson, 1995). History, development, and adoption The commonly used accounting system also known as general ledger is a book with distributed pages for every account i.e. payables, receivable, cash, equity. Each day transactions are entered by use of hand into the journal. Intuit came up with a computerized application named Quicken. The company later introduced Quickbooks for small business accounting in 1983. Turbo Tax, an application for calculating income taxes and federal, were presented to Nivinson. That saw the end of using manual entries and computers was embraced because it made the work of accountants much easier. They gave accountants an opportunity to be more productive (Hodge, 2008). In the recent past, there has been a significant improvement in the innovation in technology and organizations now depend on machines to help in the running of businesses. Since the formation of Intuit in the year 1983, It has played a significant role in developing applications for the current age. Intuit products are vast, but QuickBooks is the most commonly used. The current market size Australia has two accounting software companies competing for the market share; Xero which is from Zealand and QuickBooks Online (QBO) from is US-based Intuit. They are not the only companies in the market but because of the recent developments, they are outshining the others throughout other continents (Leung, 2011) Quickbooks has been on the market for quite some time, but its entry to Australia is relatively recent. Whereas Xero has been in the Australian market for a couple of years and has seen its widespread use by accountants and small businesses due to its capability to communicate with customers. Despite Xero being wide known in Australia, Quickbooks has launched a new user interface for Quickbooks Online (Harmony), customized with Australian localizations to the product, employed staff and opened an office in Australia and is trying to capture the Australian market share. Leaders in the market and what gives them the competitive advantage. Intuit QuickBooks MYOB Reckon Saasu Xero Intuit QuickBooks - A highly ranked accounting software in Australia. QB is among the most widespread accounting application used by small businesses in Australia. The factors that contribute to this include:- Price which is $12/month and $21/month for the premier version. QuickBooks provides a wide-ranging level of features that businesses in Australia use to trail business revenue, expenditures, and earnings. MYOB: - Australias best accounting software. It targets to be more than a functional accounting application. It has an additional feature that helps owners of businesses to increase productivity and make enhanced choices with a simultaneous view of a companys fiscal operations. It integrates the point of sale transactions into the entire business operations. It has an interface known as Kounta which works both online and offline, and the clientele hardly notices if the Internet connection slows down. They have a compliant capability known as ATO which is a huge attraction. Reckon: Purposes to be the best accounting application for accountants, bookkeepers, and companies in Australia. Its one of the affordable cloud accounting software for small businesses in Australias and is well recognized. It uses a platforms known as Reckon Pay. This platform accepts debit/credit card payments using cell phones. Saasu: - It claims to be the future of accounting. By using the application, business people in Australia can immediately execute cash flow cashing with just a click without additional setups. It offers smart bank payments that efficiently execute bank settlements thus, helps on saving time. It manages transactions in different foreign currencies. Its considered the best accounting applications for businesses in Australia. It has all that is needed to run a business from anyplace, by use of any podium. Xero: - Xero is a highly popular online accounting software in Australia. It offers real-time data monitoring abilities. It has over half a million subscribers who use the application. It has a wide range of business accounting functionalities since it offers speedy internet billing. It has a cutting-edge reconciliation process that allows the user to import and group bank transactions. Xero has two subscription categories. Starter software subscription $9/month Premium accounting software $70/month Current gaps or challenges encountered by users or customers of accounting Leading accounting software packages are cloud based, or they intend to do so. Security of any data is essential to any business. Online content is prone to hacker attacks, fraud, and other threats. It needs a high level of security which might be very expensive. Software/Packages A software/package is an of application that records and processes accounting transactions by use of well-designed components i.e. accounts receivable, accounts payable, payroll, and trial balance. There are different types of accounting application in the market which depend on business requirements. Small business/individual accounting applications are mostly intended for home users. The applications are straightforward and low-priced through the simple functionality e.g. managing one's budget (Godfrey Chalmers 2007). Low-budget accounting applications are meant for small business markets that are capable of serving a single market. These applications are characterized by single entry products. Mid-market accounting applications is meant for establishments with large businesses. These applications serve the requirements of multiple nationwide accountancy principles due the the multi-currency facility. Relevant suggestions or recommendations Accounting users have demands for enhancing the quality of software. They software is expected to have general application features i.e. ease of installation, ease of use, should have seller support and the capability to be updated. Accountants and bookkeepers to undergo training on how to use the applications so that the future needs of the organization or business can be met, this can only be accomplished through training. An appropriate accounting application should have a compatibility feature. A compatibility feature is smooth functional system constant with operations, workforce and organizational structure. Flexibility is of a key important factor in accounting applications. Flexibility can be defined as the systems capacity alongside a change of course or deviation from the programmed direction of course. Conclusion: An accounting software that is per the standards discussed above should easen an accountant work since computers are being used instead of the manual book keeping methods. Research indicates that the use of accounting applications minimizes the amount of time accounting professionals spend while undertaking accounting tasks to minimal. Reference: Bragg, S. M. (2002). Accounting reference desktop. New York: John Wiley Sons. Byrd, T. A., Turner, D. E. (2000). Measuring the flexibility of information technology infrastructure: Exploratory analysis of a construct. Journal of Management Information Systems, 17(1), 167-208. Frishammar, J. (2002). Characteristics in information processing approaches. International Journal of Information Management, 22(2), 143-156. Genus, A. and K. Dickson, (1995), Technological Analysis and Strategic Management 7(3), 283 285. Godfrey, J. M., Chalmers, K. (2007). Globalisation of accounting standards. Cheltenham, UK:Edward Elgar. Hodge, B. (2008). Accounting. London: Thomson Learning. Joshi, G. (2013). Management information systems. Leung, D. (2011). Inside Accounting: The Sociology of Financial Reporting and Auditing. Farnham, Surrey, England: Gower. Ramazani, M., Zanjani, M., Vali, F. (2012). Accounting Software Expectation Gap Based on Features of Accounting Information Systems (AISs). Journal of Emerging Trends in Computing and Information Sciences, 3(11). Rushinek, A., Rushinek, S. F. (1995). Accounting software evaluation: hardware, audit trails, backup, error recovery and security. Managerial Auditing Journal, 10(9), 29-37. Scha?ffer, U. (2008). Management accounting control scales handbook. Wiesbaden: Deutscher Universita?ts-Verlag. Spathis, C. (2006). Enterprise systems implementation and accounting benefits. Journal of Enterprise Information Management, 19, 67-82. Tabachnick, B. Fidell, L. (2007). Using multivariate statistics, Boston, Allyn Bacon.